Sophocles

Sophocles was the second of the 3 greatest Greek writers of tragedy (with Aeschylus and Euripides). He is known for writing about Oedipus, the mythological figure who proved central to Freud and the history of psychoanalysis. Sophocles lived through most of the 5th century, experiencing the Age of Pericles and the Peloponnesian War.

Occupation: Playwright
Sophocles - Basics: Sophocles lived from c. 496-406 B.C. He grew up in the town of Colonus, just outside Athens, which was the setting of his tragedy Oedipus at Colonus. Sophocles' father Sophillus, thought to have been been a wealthy nobleman, sent his son to Athens for an education.
Sophocles - Public Offices: In 443/2 Sophocles was hellanotamis or treasurer of the Greeks and managed, with 9 others, the treasury of the Delian League. During the Samian War (441-439) and the Archidamian War (431-421) Sophocles was strategos 'general'. In 413/2, Sophocles was one of the board of 10 probouloi or commissioners in charge of the council.
Sophocles - Religious Office:

Sophocles was a priest of Halon and helped introduce the cult of Asclepius to Athens. He was honored posthumously as a hero.
Source:
Greek Tragedy An Introduction, by Bernhard Zimmerman. 1986.
Accomplishments of Sophocles:

In 468, Sophocles defeated the first of the the three great Greek tragedians, Aeschylus, in a dramatic competition; then in 441, the third of the tragedian trio, Euripides, beat him. During his long life Sophocles earned many prizes, including about 20 for 1st place.

Sophocles increased the number of actors to 3 (thereby reducing the importance of the chorus). Sophocles broke from Aeschylus' thematically-unified trilogies, and invented skenographia (scene painting), to define the background.
Extant Plays by Sophocles:

Seven complete tragedies

* Oedipus Tyrannus
* Oedipus at Colonus
* Antigone
* Electra
* Trachiniae
* Ajax
* Philoctetes

out of more than 100 survive; fragments exist for 80-90 others. Oedipus at Colonus was produced posthumously.
Prize Dates When Known:

Ajax (440's)
Antigone (442?)
Electra
Oedipus at Colonus
Oedipus Tyrannus (425?)
Philoctetes (409)
Trachiniae
Greek Theater Study Guide:

* Overview of Greek Theater
* Important Facts About Greek Theater and Greek Drama
* Select Greek Theater Bibliography
* Tragedy - Setting the Stage
* Aeschylus
* Sophocles
* Euripides
* Aristophanes

Study Guides For Sophocles' Tragedies:

* Robin Mitchell-Boyask's Study Guide for Sophocles' Ajax.
Robin Mitchell-Boyask's Study Guide for Sophocles' Ajax.
* Robin Mitchell-Boyask's Study Guide for Sophocles' Antigone.
Roger Dunkle's Study Guide.
* Robin Mitchell-Boyask's Study Guide for Trachinian Women.
* Robin Mitchell-Boyask's Study Guide for Sophocles' Philoctetes.
Robin Mitchell-Boyask's Structural Guide for Sophocles' Philoctetes.
* Robin Mitchell-Boyask's Study Guide for Sophocles' Electra.
* Robin Mitchell-Boyask's Study Guide for Sophocles' Oedipus Rex.
Roger Dunkle's Study Guide.

More on Ancient Greece

SpartaAncient BiographyAncient Greece
Suggested Reading

Solon Lawgiver of AthensAncient Greece vs Ancient RomeDelphic Oracle
Spartans

PatrouchosLeonidasGorgo of Sparta
Related Articles

* Drama (Comedy and Tragedy) by Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides, Aristophanes...
* Euripides - About Euripides Writer of Greek Tragedy
* Sophocles - 496-
* The Greek Chorus
* Aeschylus - Greek Playwright Aeschylus

***

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Vsevolod Emilievich Meyerhold

Vsevolod Emilievich Meyerhold
Born 1874 – Arrested and imprisoned 1939 – Executed 1940

Vsevolod Meyerhold (1874-1940), whose plans for a Moscow production of Boris Godunov in 1937 have informed the Princeton production, is one of the most influential directors and theorists in theater history. After training as an actor at the Music and Drama Institute of the Moscow Philharmonic Philharmonia, with Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko, Meyerhold became one of the founding members of the Moscow Art Theater, which Nemirovich-Danchenko established in 1897 with Konstantin Stanislavsky. Stanislavsky's decision to create an "art" theater was his response to innovations introduced by George II, duke of Saxe-Meiningen, and others in the fledgling field of directing, a nineteenth-century invention; they worked to coordinate the various arts typically involved in an evening of theater in order to serve the intention of an author rather than the vanity of a star. The Moscow Art Theater became best known for its pioneering realism, a relatively new kind of theater at the time, and Meyerhold played a leading role in one of the theater's first successes, Stanislavsky's production of Anton Chekhov's The Seagull. Working on plays by Chekhov, Henrik Ibsen, Maxim Gorky, and Gerhart Hauptmann, Stanislavsky evolved a new psychological approach to the art of acting--the acting equivalent of the realism evoked by his favorite writers.

Despite his successes on the stage of the Moscow Art Theater, Meyerhold decided to leave in 1902 to pursue the role of director. In part, his decision stemmed from his resistance to psychological realism. He admired Alexander Pushkin's observation that "drama originated in a public square and constituted a popular entertainment." After touring the Russian provinces with more than 170 productions created by his own company, Meyerhold moved to St. Petersburg to work with the actress Vera Komissarzhevskaya on such experimental, metatheatrical works as Alexander Blok's The Puppet Theater Booth. If Stanislavsky is thought to be the father of a mode of directing that emphasizes fidelity to the playwright's style and intention, Meyerhold might be considered the original "concept" director; for him, every production is a director's "essay" on a play, a personal "take" informed by his own sense of the play's meaning. Stanislavsky found Meyerhold's approach to directing dictatorial, especially in relation to actors; but it is important to note that Meyerhold himself felt that he freed both actors and texts from the straightjacket of realism so that they might take on more expressive and fully embodied lives.

Whereas Stanislavsky emphasized the psychology of the actor and his work on what the director called a play's "subtext," Meyerhold focused on the actor's body. His actors employed physical techniques derived from commedia dell'arte, kabuki theater, circus, mime, ballet, gymnastics, acrobatics, Pavlovian experiments, and the time-motion studies of the American engineer Frederick Taylor. Meyerhold wanted his actors to get out of their heads and into their bodies, using all their corporeal potential in the service of the theatrical event. He took a similarly revolutionary approach to the stage itself, breaking down the barrier between actor and audience. To achieve a truly popular theater, Meyerhold believed, the theatrical space, like the actor, must be mutable, plastic. After the Revolution of 1917, Meyerhold's ideas were given the blessing of the government--for a time. In 1918, he staged what became known as "the first Soviet play," Vladimir Mayakovsky's Mystery-Bouffe, with a set by the avant-garde artist Kazimir Malevich. For a brief period, he served as head of the Theater Division of the Moscow Cultural Commissariat, making decisions as to what constituted an authentically revolutionary theater. In 1922, he founded a theater of his own and began to use words like "biomechanics" and "constructivism" to describe his physical approach to performance and his radical stage interpretations of texts. Meyerhold achieved artistic and popular success with his imaginative recreations of Fernand Crommelynck's The Magnificent Cuckold (1922), with a set of ramps and ladders designed by the constructivist artist Lyubov Popova, and Nikolai Gogol's The Inspector General (1926).

In the 1930s the Stalinist cultural establishment liquidated the proletarian arts organizations that had been Meyerhold's lifeblood. The formation of the all-powerful Committee on Arts Affairs represented the end of the age of avant-gardism, and the introduction of the official doctrine of socialist realism, first in the sphere of literature and then in the other arts, resulted in a curtailment of Meyerhold's creative activities. As the cultural climate darkened, he continued to work, embarking on several projects, including Boris Godunov, that ultimately went unrealized. Meyerhold had worked on the play twice before (in 1918 and 1924) and had participated in a production of Musorgsky's opera in 1911. He hoped that his 1937 production, conceived as part of the Pushkin jubilee celebrations, would "return Pushkin to Pushkin." As Caryl Emerson writes, Meyerhold wanted "to recreate the sense of immediacy, intimacy, and risk that had long been lost through the poet's canonization and the monumentalization of Musorgsky's opera." His efforts went to waste. Meyerhold's theater was closed by decree in 1938; he was imprisoned on fabricated charges of treason in 1939 and shot in 1940. Like countless other victims of the Stalinist purges, his name was erased and his image airbrushed from Soviet encyclopedias and history books.

The 2007 Princeton production has used Meyerhold's director's notes and various memoirs about his work on the play as constant sources of inspiration. This influence is particularly appropriate given that the contemporary American theater has evolved out of the Russian milieu Meyerhold helped to create. American "Method acting," pioneered by Lee Strasberg and Stella Adler, among others, is simply a native articulation of one part of the Stanislavsky system. Strasberg and Adler studied with two actors from the Moscow Art Theater, Richard Boleslavsky and Maria Ouspenskaya, who were steeped in Stanislavsky's and Meyerhold's innovations. In the1930s, Strasberg and Adler went on to found The Group Theatre, essentially an American version of the Moscow Art Theater and similarly dedicated to realism in acting and playwriting. Meyerhold's emphasis on the importance of training the actor's body as well as his psyche has long been a staple of American conservatory programs. ***

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Jerzy Grotowski

Jerzy Grotowski
(1933-1999) was a [[Poland|Polish]] theatre director.

== Theatre of Productions (1957-69) ==
In 1958 he made his directorial debut with the production "Gods of Rain" (based on a novel by Jerzy Krzyszton). Foreshadowing the notoriety that was to come, this production was controversial for Grotowski's bold use of text.
Said Grotowski, "In terms of my attitude to the dramatic text, I think that the director should treat it solely as a theme upon which he builds a new work of art that is the theatrical spectacle." (R. Konieczna, "Przed premierą 'Pechowców'. Rozmowa z reżyserem" / "Before the Premiere of 'The Unlucky' - A Conversation with the Director"). This approach is one that he would incorporate throughout the entirety of his career, influencing many subsequent theatre artists. Later that same year, Grotowski moved to [[Opole]] where he was invited by theatre critic and dramaturg Ludwig Flaszen to serve as director of the Theatre of 13 Rows. Here he began to assemble a company of actors and artistic collaborators that would help him realize his unique vision, and began to experiment with approaches to performance training able to help him shape the young actors initially allocated to his provincial theatre into the transformational artists they eventually became.

Among the many productions for which his theatre company would soon become famous were "Orpheus" by [[Jean Cocteau]], "Shakuntala" based on text by [[Kalidasa]], "Dziady" by Adam Mickiewicz and "Akropolis" by Stanislaw Wyspianski. This last production was the first complete realization of Grotowski's notion of 'poor theatre'. In it the company of actors (representing concentration camp prisoners) build the structure of a crematorium around the audience while acting out stories from the bible and Greek mythology. This conceptualization had particular resonance for the audiences in Opole, as the Auschwitz concentration camp was only sixty miles away. "Akropolis" was a play that received much attention, and could be said to have launched Grotowski's career internationally due to inventive and aggressive promotion among visiting foreign scholars and theatre professionals. A film of the production was made with an introduction by Peter Brook, which constitutes one of the most accessible and concrete records of Grotowski's work.

In 1964 Grotowski followed success with success when his theatre premiered "The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus" based on the Elizabethan drama by Marlowe, featuring Zbigniew Cynkutis in the title role. Foregoing the use of props altogether, Grotowski let the actors' bodies represent different objects, establishing an intimate dynamic of relation between actors and spectators by seating audience members as the guests at Faust's last supper, with the action unfolding on and around the table where they were seated.

In [[1965]] Grotowski moved his company to [[Wrocław]] relabeling them a "Teatr Laboratorium", in part to avoid the heavy censorship that professional 'theatres' were subject to in Poland at that time. Work had already begun on one of their most famous productions, "The Constant Prince". Debuting in 1967, this production is thought by many to be one of the greatest theatrical works of the 20th century. Ryszard Cieslak's performance in the title role is considered the apogee of Grotowski's approach to acting. In one of his final essays, Grotowski detailed how he worked individually with Cieslak for more than year to develop the details of the actor's physical score before combining this central element of the performance with the work of other actors and the context of torture and martyrdom intrinsic to the play.

1969 saw the last professional production from Grotowski as director. Entitled "Apocalypsis Cum Figuris" it is widely regarded as one of the best theatre productions of the twentieth century. Again utilizing text from the bible, this time combined with contemporary writings from authors such as T.S. Eliot and Simone Weil, this production was cited by members of the company as an example of a group 'total act'. The development of ''Apocalypsis'' took more than three years, beginning as a staging of Slowacki's ''Samuel Zborowski'' and passing through an entirely separate stage of development as a staging of the Gospels, ''Ewangelie'' (elaborated as a completed performance though never presented to audiences) before arriving to its final form. Throughout this process, Grotowski can already be seen abandoning the conventions of traditional theatre, straining at the boundaries of what he later termed Art as presentation.

Grotowski revolutionized theatre, and, along with his first apprentice [[Eugenio Barba]], leader and founder of [[Odin Teatret]], is considered a father of [[theatre|contemporary experimental theatre]]. [[Eugenio Barba|Barba]] was instrumental in revealing Grotowski to the world outside the iron curtain. He was the editor of Grotowski's seminal book, ''Towards a Poor Theatre'' ([[1968]]), in which Grotowski declared that theatre should not, because it could not, compete against the overwhelming spectacle of [[film]] and should instead focus on the very root of the act of theatre: actors in front of spectators.

Theatre - through the actor's technique, his art in which the living organism strives for higher motives - provides an opportunity for what could be called integration, the discarding of masks, the revealing of the real substance: a totality of physical and mental reactions. This opportunity must be treated in a disciplined manner, with a full awareness of the responsibilities it involves. Here we can see the theatre's therapeutic function for people in our present day civilization. It is true that the actor accomplishes this act, but he can only do so through an [[Encounter (Psychology)| encounter]] with the spectator - intimately, visibly, not hiding behind a cameraman, wardrobe mistress, stage designer or make-up girl - in direct confrontation with him, and somehow " instead of" him. The actor's act - discarding half measures, revealing, opening up, emerging from himself as opposed to closing up - is an invitation to the spectator. This act could be compared to an act of the most deeply rooted, genuine love between two human beings - this is just a comparison since we can only refer to this "emergence from oneself" through analogy. This act, paradoxical and borderline, we call a total act. In our opinion it epitomizes the actor's deepest calling. ''From 'Towards a Poor Theatre' by Grotowski''[http://owendaly.com/jeff/grotows2.htm Grotowski Statement of Principles]

== Debut in the West ==
The year 1968 marked Grotowski's debut in the West. His company performed the Stanislaw Wyspianski play ''Akropolis/Acropolis'' (1964) at the Edinburgh Festival. This was a fitting vehicle for Grotowski and his Poor Theatre because his treatment of the play in Poland had already achieved wider recognition, and was published in ''Pamiętnik Teatralny'' (Warsaw, 1964), ''Alla Ricerca del Teatro Perduto'' (Padova, 1965), and ''Tulane Drama Review'' (New Orleans, 1965). It marked the first time many in Britain had been exposed to "Poor Theatre". The same year his great book called ''Towards A Poor Theatre'' in English appeared in Danish, published by Odin Teatrets Fortag. It appeared in English the following year, published by Methuen and Co. Ltd., with an Introduction by Peter Brook, then Director of the Royal Shakespeare Company. In it he writes feelingly about Grotowski's private consulting for the Company; he/they felt Grotowski's work was unique but equally understood that its value was diminished if talked about too much, if faith were broken with the consultant.

== The Paratheatrical Phase (1969-78) ==
In 1970 Grotowski published "Holiday," which outlined a new course of investigation. He would pursue this 'Paratheatrical' phase until 1978. This phase is known as the 'Paratheatrical' phase of his career because it was an attempt to transcend the separation between performer and spectator. Grotowski attempted this through the organization of communal rites and simple interactive exchanges that went on sometimes for extended periods, attempting to provoke in participants a deconditioning of impulse. The most widely circulated description of one of these post-theatrical events (a 'beehive') is voiced by [[Andre Gregory]], Grotowski's long-time friend and the American director whose work he most strongly endorsed, in [[My Dinner with Andre]]. Various collaborators who had been important to Grotowski's work in what he termed his "Theatre of Productions" phase had difficulty following him in these explorations beyond the boundary of conventional theatre. Other, younger members of the group came to the foreground, notably Jacek Zmysłowski, whom many would consider Grotowski's closest collaborator in this period. Theatre critics have often exoticized and mystified Grotowski's work on the basis of these paratheatrical experiments, suggesting that his work should be seen in the lineage of [[Antonin Artaud]], a suggestion Grotowski strongly resisted. Later in life, he clarified that he quickly found this direction of research limiting, having realized that unstructured work frequently elicits banalities and cultural cliché from participants.

== Theatre of Sources (1976-82) ==
In this period of his work, Grotowski traveled intensively through India, Mexico, Haiti and elsewhere, seeking to identify elements of technique in the traditional practices of various cultures that could have a precise and discernible effect on participants. Key collaborators in this phase of work include [[Włodzimierz Staniewski]], subsequently founder of [[Gardzienice Theatre Association]], Jairo Cuesta and Magda Złotowska, who traveled with Grotowski on his international expeditions. His interest in ritual techniques linked to Haitian practice led Grotowski to a long-standing collaboration with Maud Robart and Jean-Claude Tiga of Saint Soleil. Always a master strategist, Grotowski made use of his international ties and the relative freedom of travel allowed him to pursue this program of cultural research in order to flee Poland following the imposition of martial law. He spent time in Haiti and in Rome, where he delivered a series of important lectures on the topic of theatre anthropology at the University of Rome La Sapienza in 1982 before seeking political asylum in the United States. His dear friends [[Andre Gregory|Andre]] and [[Mercedes Gregory]] helped Grotowski to settle in the US, where he taught at Columbia University for one year while attempting to find support for a new program of research.

== Objective Drama (1983-86) ==
Unable (despite the best efforts of [[Richard Schechner]]) to secure resources for his projected research in Manhattan, in 1983 Grotowski relocated to UC Irvine where he began a course of work known as 'Objective Drama'. This phase of research was characterized by an investigation of the psychophysiological impact of selected songs and other performative tools derived from traditional cultures on participants, focusing specifically on relatively simple techniques that could exert a discernible and predictable impact on the doer regardless of her belief structures or culture of origin. Ritual songs and related performative elements linked to Haitian and other African diaspora traditions became an especially fruitful tool of research. During this time Grotowski continued several important collaborative relationships begun in earlier phases, with Maud Robart, Jairo Cuesta, and Pablo Jimenez taking on significant roles as performers and research leaders in the project. He also initiated a longstanding creative relationship with American director James Slowiak and discovered the individual to whom he would ultimately pass responsibility for his life-long research, Thomas Richards, son of legendary African-American director [[Lloyd Richards]].

== Art as Vehicle (1986- ) ==
In 1986, Grotowski was invited by Roberto Bacci of the Centro per la Sperimentazione e la Ricerca Teatrale to shift the base of his work to Pontedera, Italy, where he was offered an opportunity to conduct long-term research on performance without the pressure of having to show results until he was ready. Grotowski gladly accepted, taking with him three assistants from Objective Drama research (Richards, Jimenez and Slowiak) to help in founding his Italian Workcenter. Robart also led a work-team in Pontedera for several years, after which time funding cuts necessitated downscaling to a single research group, led by Richards. Grotowski took the term used to describe his final phase of research from a talk by [[Peter Brook]], who coined the phrase "art as vehicle" to characterize the focus of his attention. "It seems to me," Brook said, "That Grotowski is showing us something which existed in the past but has been forgotten over the centuries. That is that one of the vehicles which allows man to have access to another level of perception is to be found in the art of performance." The culmination of Grotowski's life-long research involving the potential efficacy of ritual performance, Art as Vehicle focuses on the subtle process of energy transformation that can be activated within an appropriately skilled and prepared doer working with vibratory songs linked to ritual traditions, in the framework of a precise and repeatable artistic structure. Grotowski articulated one of the most lucid and concise explanations of his work, specifically his interest in performance as a vehicle for pursuing what he termed "verticality," in an essay printed in appendix to Thomas Richards first book, ''At Work with Grotowski on Physical Actions''. The work of Grotowski's final phase thus represents a synthesis of his early insistence on craft and emphasis on an acting process rooted in Stanislavski's method of physical actions with the results of his extensive investigation of bodily techniques. Richards became Grotowski's "essential collaborator" in this research, working intensively alongisde him for 13 years in an intimate and rigorous dynamic described by Grotowski as a unique, singular process of "transmission," understood in the sense of traditional initiatory practices. One of the primary concerns of Grotowski's latter years was that the research that had been the focus of his lifework should not die with him, but rather be passed on to other hands, so that this knowledge should not be lost. Toward that end, he drove Richards to take on increasingly greater responsibility and leadership in the work, until he was not only the primary doer in the practice of Art as Vehicle, but also its leader and "director" (if such a term can be accurately used) of the performance structures created around these Afro-Caribbean vibratory songs, most significantly ''Downstairs Action'' (filmed by Mercedes Gregory in 1989) and ''Action,'' on which work began in 1994 and continues to the present. Italian actor Mario Biagini, who joined the Workcenter shortly after its founding, also became a central contributor to this research. In 1995, Grotowski changed the name of the Italian center to the Workcenter of Jerzy Grotowski and Thomas Richards to signal the unique and central place Richards held in his work. Although Grotowski died in 1999 at the end of a prolonged illness, the research of Art as Vehicle continues at the Pontedera Workcenter, with Richards as Artistic Director and Biagini as Associate Director. Grotowski's will declared the two his "universal heirs," holders of copyright on the entirety of his textual output and intellectual property.

== Bibliography ==
*''Towards a Poor Theatre (Introduction by Peter Brook) (1968)
*''The Theatre of Grotowski'' by Jennifer Kumiega, London: Methuen, 1987.
*''At Work with Grotowski on Physical Actions'' by Thomas Richards, London: Routledge, 1995.
*''The Grotowski Sourcebook'' ed. by Lisa Wolford and Richard Schechner, London: Routledge, 1997.

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Konstantin Stanislavski

Konstantin (Constantin) Sergejevitch Stanislavski (Stanislavsky) (bahasa Rusia Константин Сергеевич Станиславский}}; 5 Januari 1863–7 Agustus 1938) adalah seorang inovator teater dan seni peran Rusia.

Biografi

Stanislavski dilahirkan dengan nama Konstantin Sergeievich Alexeyev di Moskwa dalam sebuah keluarga kaya. Pertama kali ia tampil dalam seni peran pada usia 7 tahun. Ia mengambil nama panggung Stanislavski pada awal kariernya (kemungkinan untuk menjaga reputasi keluarganya.) Dalam beberapa terjemahan, namanya ditulis "Konstantin Stanislavski".

Pada 1888, Stanislavski mendirikan Perhimpunan Seni dan Sastra di Teater Maly, dan di sana ia memperoleh pengalaman dalam estetika dan seni panggung.

Pada 1897 ia ikut mendirikan Teater Seni Moskwa (MKhAT) bersama Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko. Salah satu produksi pertama kelompok ini adalah Burung Camar karya Anton Chekhov. Di MKhAT inilah Stanislavski mulai mengembangkan, berdasarkan tradisi realis dari Aleksandr Pushkin, "Sistem"-nya yang termasyhur (seringkali disebut "Metode", meskipun sebutan ini tidak akurat; metode seni peran dikembangkan dari sini). "Sistem" ini belakangan diadaptasi oleh Lee Strasberg, Stella Adler, Robert Lewis, Sanford Meisner, dan banyak tokoh lainnya di Amerika Serikat. Sistem Stanislavski dipusatkan pada pengembangan watak dan dunia panggung yang realistis. Para aktor diajarkan untuk memanfaatkan "Memori Afektif" agar dapat secara wajar menggambarkan emosi seorang watak. Untuk melakukan hal itu, para aktor dituntut memikirkan sebuah momen dalma hidup mereka sendiri ketika mereka merasakan emosi yang diinginkan dan kemudian memainkan kembali emosi tersebut di dalam peran guna mencapai penampilan yang lebih sungguh-sungguh.

Metode Stanislavski mengembangkan sebuah pendekatan sistematis terhadap pelatihan para aktor untuk mengembangkan dari dalam dirinya ke luar.

Stanislavski mengusulkan agar para aktor mempelajari dan mengalami emosi-emosi dan perasaan-perasaan subyektif dan mewujudkannya kepada para penonton melalui sarana-sarana fisik dan vokal, yang juga dikenal sebagai Bahasa teater.

Stanislavski bertahan baik Revolusi Rusia tahun 1905 dan Revolusi Rusia tahun 1917, dengan Lenin yang tampaknya ikut campur untuk melindunginya. Pada 1918, Stanislavski mendirikan Studio Pertama sebagai sekolah untuk aktor muda dan menulis sejumlah karya. buku-buku yang ditulisnya dan terdapat dalam bahasa Inggris antara lain adalah: An Actor Prepares (diterjemahkan oleh Asrul Sani dengan judul "Persiapan Seorang Aktor"), Building a Character, Creating a Role, dan biografi My Life in Art.

Perbedaan-perbedaan antara sistem Stanislavski dan Metode Lee Strasberg

Sistem Stanislavski dapat pula disebut Metode Aksi Fisik yang berbeda dengan Metode Lee Strasberg yang sangat dipengaruhi oleh "Memori Afektif". Stanislavski mempunyai berbagai murid pada setiap tahap penemuan dan eksperimentasinya dengan Metode Universal seni peran. Salah seorang muridnya, Richard Boleslavsky mendirikan Laboratorium Teater Amerika pada 1925. Laboratorium ini mempunyai pengaruh yang sangat hebat terhadap seni peran Amerika, Lee Strasberg sebagai kepalanya. Boleslavsky terlibat dalam tahapan Stanislavski ketika ia bereksperimen dengan Memori Afektif. Teori Stanislavski belakangan berkembang hingga mengandalkan Aksi Fisik yang membangkitkan perasaan dan emosi. Memori Afektif diterapkan dalam Sistem Stanislavski tetapi tidak begitu banyak dalam Metode Lee Strasberg.

Stella Adler, satu-satunya orang Amerika yang belajar pada Stanislavski, diajari Metode Aksi Fisik di Paris selama 5 minggu pada 1934. Dengan pengetahuan yang baru ini ia datang kepada Strasberg dan memperkenalkan kepadanya Sistem/Metode Aksi Fisik yang baru. Lee Strasberg memahami perbedaan-perbedaannya tetapi menolak Metode Aksi Fisik. Ia percaya bahwa seni peran adalah mengenang kembail emosi. Karena itu Adler berkata tentang Strasberg "Ia sama sekali keliru."

Stanislavski meninggal pada 1938 sehingga antara 1934 ketika ia bertemud engan Stella Adler dan 1938 ia masih menemukan dan memperkeuat hal-hal baru di dalam Sistemnya.

Penting diingat bahwa Stanislavski selalu menganggap sistemnya seolah-olah sebuah daftar isi dari sebuah buku yang besar yang membahas segala aspek dari seni peran. Karyanya yang terakhir, kini dikenal sebagai Metode Aksi Fisik, sama sekali bukanlah penolakan terhadap minatnya yang lebih awal terhadap memori perasaan dan memori afektif. Ia sama sekali tidak pernah menolak pemahaman memori emosi; ia hanya menemukan cara-cara lain untuk mengakses emosi, antara lain keyakinan mutlak akan keadaan-keadaan tertentu; pelatihan imajinasi, dan penggunaan aksi fisik.

Ini sebetulnya tidak benar. Apa yang ditemukan Stanislavski adalah bahwa kebanyakan - memori perasaan dan memori afektif, ketimbang membebaskan si aktor, terlalu sering menimbulkan hasil-hasil yang negatif. Hal ini membuat para aktor tegang, lelah, dan histeris, dan seringkali menyebabkan ia secara emosional membeku. Dalam tulisan-tulisannya di kemudian hari ia percaya bahwa setiap upaya untuk membangkitkan perasaan harus dihindari.

Warisan

Jalan berliku yang panjang yang dimulai dengan sistem Stanislavski membaw kepada aktor dan aktris seperti Jack Nicholson, Marilyn Monroe, James Dean, Marlon Brando, Montgomery Clift, Harvey Keitel, Steve McQueen, Paul Newman, Warren Beatty, Geraldine Page, Dustin Hoffman, Robert De Niro, Al Pacino, Jane Fonda, dan masih banyak lagi. Yang lebih belakangan adalah Benicio Del Toro, Mark Ruffalo, Johnny Depp, dan Sean Penn.

Charlie Chaplin berkata, "Buku Stanislavki Persiapan Seorang Aktor, menolong semua orang untuk menjangkau seni dramatis yang besar. Buku ini mengajarkan apa yang dibutuhkan seorang aktor untuk membangkitkan ilham yang ia butuhkan untuk mengungkapkan emosi-emosi yang mendalam."

Sir John Gielgud berkata, "Sutradara ini menemukan waktu untuk menjelaskan seribu kali apa yang selalu menggangu para aktor dan mempesona para murid." Gielgud juga pernah berkata, "Buku Stanislavski yang kini terkenal adalah sumbangan kepada Teater dan siswa-sisanya di seluruh dunia."

Tujuan Stanislavski adalah menemukan sebuah Metode/Sistem Universal yang dapat menolong para aktor. Sebagai kesimpulan dari semuanya, Stanislavski berkata tentang Sistemnya, "Ciptakanlah metode anda sendiri. Jangan bergantung membabi buta pada metode saya. Ciptakanlah sesuatu yang menolong bagi anda! Tetapi saya mohon, patahkanlah terus tradisi." ***

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